Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022)
Latest Articles
Identification and Distribution of Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria in the Feces Treatment Process: A Case Study in a Dairy Farm, China
Water 2024, 16(11), 1575; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111575 (registering DOI) - 31 May 2024
Abstract
The overuse of antibiotics has resulted in the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB) in the environment. High-density livestock farming is one of the major industries for antibiotic overuse. In this study, we sampled wastewater and manure at
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The overuse of antibiotics has resulted in the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB) in the environment. High-density livestock farming is one of the major industries for antibiotic overuse. In this study, we sampled wastewater and manure at different stages of the feces treatment process from a dairy farm, as well as the soil in the farmland where the treated wastewater was being used for irrigation purpose. High-throughput Illumina sequencing was used to analyze the profiles of bacteria communities and ARGs. The results showed that the main ARG types were multidrug, aminoglycoside, glycopeptide, and tetracycline resistance genes, and Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were the main host bacteria phyla of these ARGs. The genus Nocardioides sp. and Ornithinimicrobium sp. were closely associated with the ARGs in the investigated samples. The relative abundances of ARGs in wastewater and manure were reduced by 68.5% and 62.1%, respectively, by the existing feces treatment process. Anaerobic fermentation and high-temperature fermentation were the most efficient treatment steps; the relative abundances of ARGs were reduced by 29.3% and 33.6% in the treated wastewater and manure, respectively. Irrigation with the treated wastewater significantly increased the abundance and diversity of ARGs and ARB in the surface soil of the farmland. The residual ARGs were found to transit through vertical gene transfer (VGT) and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in soil. Therefore, the direct application of this inadequately treated wastewater and/or manure could risk spreading ARGs into the environment, and potentially impact human health. In order to effectively restrain the spread of ARGs, it is necessary to modify the wastewater and manure treatment processes and improve the regulations and guidelines of applying treated wastewater for irrigation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resource Use of Sewage Sludge for Soil Application)
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A Study on the Shape of Parabolic Aeration Facilities with Local Steepness in Slow Slope Chutes
by
Yuping Dong, Guodong Li, Shaobin Liu, Shanshan Li, Pengfeng Li and Yong Wei
Water 2024, 16(11), 1574; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111574 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
For flood discharge structures with high water heads, aeration facilities are usually installed in engineering to promote water flow aeration and prevent cavitation damage to the overflow surface. Actual engineering has shown that as the slope of the discharge channel bottom decreases or
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For flood discharge structures with high water heads, aeration facilities are usually installed in engineering to promote water flow aeration and prevent cavitation damage to the overflow surface. Actual engineering has shown that as the slope of the discharge channel bottom decreases or water level changes lead to a decrease in the Froude number, the cavity morphology after conventional aeration facilities or allotype aerators is poor. This article proposes a curved aeration facility scheme based on the idea of locally increasing the bottom slope to reduce the impact angle, which is formed by the convex parabolic bottom plate and concave parabolic bottom plate. The convex parabolic bottom plate is tangent to a flat bottom plate behind the offset, and the concave parabolic bottom plate is tangent to the downstream. The jet landing point is controlled at the junction of the convex parabolic bottom plate and the concave parabolic bottom plate, and the lower jet trajectory is in line with the parabolic bottom plate. The corresponding parabolic bottom plate calculation formulas were theoretically derived, and the design method of the shape parameters of the aeration facility was provided. Through specific engineering case studies, it was found that: (1) As the ZAC/ZAG value increases, point C becomes closer to point G, the slope of the water tongue landing point C becomes steeper, and the cavity is less likely to return water. (2) When the position of the water tongue landing point is 0.5–0.8 times the height of the water tongue impact point, there is almost no water accumulation in the calculated cavity. At this time, the platform length LAB = 0.5LAF, the convex parabolic section length LBC = (0.45–0.6) LAG, the concave parabolic section length LCD = (0.43–0.11) LAG, the convex parabolic section calculation formula is z (x) = −A1x2 (A1 = 0.0059–0.00564), and the concave parabolic section calculation formula is A2x2 − B2x2 (A2 = 0.003347–0.01927).This solved the problem of aeration and corrosion reduction under small bottom slope, large-unit discharge, and low Froude number engineering conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Hydraulic Engineering and Hydrological Modelling)
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Geochemical Assessment of Heavy Metal Distribution in Bug River Sediments, Poland: The Impacts of Urbanization and Agricultural Practices
by
Elżbieta Skorbiłowicz, Piotr Ofman, Mirosław Skorbiłowicz, Marcin Sidoruk and Urszula Tarasiuk
Water 2024, 16(11), 1573; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111573 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
Heavy metals play a crucial role in the environment due to their toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation ability, which can lead to severe ecological and health risks. This study aimed to investigate the impact of urbanization and agricultural practices on the heavy metal content
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Heavy metals play a crucial role in the environment due to their toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation ability, which can lead to severe ecological and health risks. This study aimed to investigate the impact of urbanization and agricultural practices on the heavy metal content in the sediments of the Bug River catchment. To this end, 96 surface sediment samples were collected from various points in the Bug River catchment, including from urban, agricultural, and forested areas. The samples for laboratory analysis were collected in July 2018, 2019, and 2020 in the Polish part of the Bug River watershed. Heavy metal (Zn, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Cd) concentrations were determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (CF), and pollution load index (PLI) were used to assess the degree of sediment contamination. The results indicate higher concentrations of heavy metals in urban sediments, where cadmium concentrations reached up to 2.5 mg/kg, compared to agricultural and forested areas, where concentrations were significantly lower. The average Igeo value for cadmium was 0.24 in agricultural areas and 0.15 in urban areas, suggesting the predominance of anthropogenic influences over natural sources. The highest PLI values were found in urban areas, reaching a maximum of 0.33, indicating higher pollution levels. Statistical analysis revealed that urban emissions and agricultural activities significantly influenced the presence of these metals in the Bug River sediments. This study’s conclusions emphasize that effective river water quality management requires continuous monitoring and an understanding of anthropogenic and natural pollution sources. The results contribute to a better understanding the interactions between human activities and water quality, crucial for planning protection and remediation strategies. Additionally, this study provides critical insights into optimizing pollution management strategies and developing remediation methods, serving local and regional policymakers in planning protective actions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry of Water and Sediment III)
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Groundwater Potential for the Utilisation of Shallow Geothermal Energy from a Closed Coal Mine
by
Željko Vukelić and Jurij Šporin
Water 2024, 16(11), 1572; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111572 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
In accordance with the programme of closure works and the implementation of ecological spatial rehabilitation in the area of the Slovenian coal mine Trbovlje–Hrastnik (RTH), there is a great opportunity to exploit shallow geothermal energy from water and ground sources. In the RTH
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In accordance with the programme of closure works and the implementation of ecological spatial rehabilitation in the area of the Slovenian coal mine Trbovlje–Hrastnik (RTH), there is a great opportunity to exploit shallow geothermal energy from water and ground sources. In the RTH area, there is great energy potential in the utilisation of underground water and heat from the earth. In our research, we have focussed on the use of geothermal energy with heat pumps from groundwater (water/water system) and from ground collectors and wells up to a depth of 150 m (rock/water system). With the water/water system, we have an average of 2.7 MW of thermal energy available, with the rock/water system having 7.5 kW of thermal energy from a 150 m deep well. With the rock/water system in particular, the development of an industrial zone in the RTH area can also provide for a greater demand for thermal energy. The thermal energy obtained in this way is utilised via heat pumps to heat and cool commercial, residential and industrial buildings. The utilisation of shallow geothermal energy can make a major contribution to carbon neutrality, as the use of geothermal energy has no negative impact on the environment and causes no greenhouse gas emissions. The aim of the paper is to provide an overview of the methods used to analyse heat storage in aquifers of abandoned coal mines, to represent these storages in RTH with a basic mathematical–statistical inventory of what is happening in the aquifer, and to investigate the possibility of using shallow geothermal energy with the help of modelling the use of shallow geothermal energy. The results and analyses obtained can make an important scientific contribution to the use of geothermal energy from abandoned and closed mines.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Geothermal Water and Energy)
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How Scale Influences the Resilience of Urban Water Systems: A Literature Review of Trade-Offs and Recommendations
by
Nicole Arnaud, Manel Poch, Lucia Alexandra Popartan, Lluis Corominas and Marta Verdaguer
Water 2024, 16(11), 1571; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111571 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
Climate change severely affects urban water systems (UWSs). Infrastructure historically designed for milder conditions cannot manage growing water demands and extreme events. To obtain a resilient water sector, adaptation and mitigation strategies must address rising water challenges while striving for net-zero emissions. Researchers
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Climate change severely affects urban water systems (UWSs). Infrastructure historically designed for milder conditions cannot manage growing water demands and extreme events. To obtain a resilient water sector, adaptation and mitigation strategies must address rising water challenges while striving for net-zero emissions. Researchers have noted that extreme decentralization is positively associated with closing cycles while reducing transport costs. However, part of the scientific community defends centralized schemes due to economies of scale. The objective of this systematic review is to understand the trade-offs associated with the adoption of different scales at UWSs design and how this impacts system resilience. This process includes identifying different scale trade-offs and unique environmental aspects that influence the optimal scale suitability. A clear distinction was made in terms of scale concept and classification, considering different design levels. That is, considering the UWS at the city level and water management units (WMUs) at the local level. Similarly, a classification of different scales for each level, covering all water streams—supply, wastewater, and stormwater—was introduced. We defined the key environmental aspects that influence the optimal scale and location suitability: ten at the city-catchment level and eleven at the site-neighbourhood level. Scale impacts three major UWSs functionalities that have repercussions on urban resilience: net energy, net water, and ecosystem services (ES).
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Planning in the Management Urban Water Systems to Increase Resilience)
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Assessment of Groundwater Quality through Hydrochemistry Using Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Water Quality Index (WQI) in Kızılırmak Delta, Turkey
by
Sema Arıman, Nazire Göksu Soydan-Oksal, Neslihan Beden and Hayatullah Ahmadzai
Water 2024, 16(11), 1570; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111570 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
This study aimed to characterize the chemical composition and spatial distribution of groundwater in the Kızılırmak Delta of Turkey and to evaluate the suitability of groundwater in the Kızılırmak Delta for drinking water use through a Water Quality Index (WQI) assessment. Eleven water
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This study aimed to characterize the chemical composition and spatial distribution of groundwater in the Kızılırmak Delta of Turkey and to evaluate the suitability of groundwater in the Kızılırmak Delta for drinking water use through a Water Quality Index (WQI) assessment. Eleven water parameters, including nitrate (NO3−), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl−), potassium (K+), bicarbonate (HCO3−), sulfate (SO42−), hardness (measured as CaCO3), electrical conductivity (EC), and pH were analyzed to determine the water quality of each groundwater sample. The WQI was determined using the weighted arithmetic index method and the method specified by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). The spatial distribution of the result for all observation wells was plotted. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was generated utilizing the analytical data from eleven selected samples. As a result of the study, according to the calculated WQI values, the water in most of the wells was not suitable for drinking purposes. The minimum Ca2+ concentration in the study area was 108,817 mg/L, and the maximum was 692,382 mg/L, which showed that the samples in all wells exceeded the WHO limit. The same situation is valid for Mg2+, and the values vary between 100.383 and 5183.026 mg/L. From the spatial distribution of the water quality parameters it has been understood that the eastern part of the region is more suitable than the western part for drinking purposes. The results from correlation analysis showed the strongest positive correlation between Mg2+ and Na+ and Na+ and EC as 0.989. The present study shows that the groundwater of the delta, which has deteriorating water quality, should be treated before it is used for drinking water and protected from contamination hazards.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Field Monitoring, GIS, Remote Sensing, Geophysical Techniques, and Hydrochemical Analysis in Groundwater Investigations)
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Improvements to the Hydraulic Performance of Culverts under Inlet Control Conditions by Optimisation of Inlet Characteristics
by
Leon de Jager and Marco van Dijk
Water 2024, 16(11), 1569; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111569 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
With renewed interest in the optimisation of the hydraulic performance of new and existing culverts, particularly relevant to South Africa’s evolving road network and anticipated climate-induced rainfall changes, this research investigated the benefit of angled wingwall and headwall combinations and considered the installation
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With renewed interest in the optimisation of the hydraulic performance of new and existing culverts, particularly relevant to South Africa’s evolving road network and anticipated climate-induced rainfall changes, this research investigated the benefit of angled wingwall and headwall combinations and considered the installation of a ventilation device in order to improve culvert performances. Through experimental modelling at the University of Pretoria Water Laboratory, the angled wingwall and headwall combinations demonstrated significant flow improvements compared to square inlets. It was also demonstrated that a ventilation device could cause flow through culverts to flow under inlet control conditions where it would otherwise have flowed under outlet control conditions. Additionally, the study proposes design coefficient adjustments for square inlet culverts operating under inlet control conditions. The proposed improvements can be applied during design stages, but the findings also propose prefabricated inlet elements as cost-effective solutions for existing culverts, thereby facilitating quick upgrades without the need for lengthy road closures while potentially enabling benefits for pedestrian traffic. Ultimately, this study underscores the potential of innovative and novel design modifications to enhance culvert performance, offering sustainable and economical alternatives to conventional replacement practices while advancing hydraulic engineering resilience in response to evolving infrastructural and environmental demands.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers of Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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An Environmental History of the First Attempts to Straighten the River Inn in Tyrol (1745–1792)
by
Reinhard Ferdinand Nießner
Water 2024, 16(11), 1568; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111568 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
The first systematic attempts to straighten the River Inn in Tyrol for shipping and land reclamation date back to the middle of the 18th century. A dedicated hydraulic engineering authority—the so-called Main Ark Inspection—was established to realize this challenging task. The one-man authority
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The first systematic attempts to straighten the River Inn in Tyrol for shipping and land reclamation date back to the middle of the 18th century. A dedicated hydraulic engineering authority—the so-called Main Ark Inspection—was established to realize this challenging task. The one-man authority was unable to straighten the Alpine river through the period of its existence up to 1792. The reasons for this were by no means related to a lack of technical resources and knowledge. On the contrary, a micro- and environmental-historical analysis of the attempts to straighten the River Inn highlights the complexity of the causes, which were mutually reinforcing and multifactorial. In this paper, four key causes are examined in more detail: (1) the social organization of water engineering, (2) social conflicts between riparian communities among themselves and with the hydraulic engineering authority, (3) conflicts between Tyrol and Bavaria at the wet border downstream of Kufstein, and (4) increased bedload discharge into the main river by tributaries. To illustrate the causes mentioned above, historical river maps are analyzed in great detail, drawing on contemporaneous written sources. The approach thereby highlights the overall complexity of pre-modern hydraulic engineering in all its facets, be they social, technical, natural, administrative, or organizational. To conclude, the results of this environmental history research are embedded and discussed in the context of integrated river management in the Anthropocene.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue River Science: Integrated Management of Water Resources in the Anthropocene)
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Microplastic Transportation in a Typical Drinking Water Supply: From Raw Water to Household Water
by
Xiangying Sun, Yunjie Zhu, Lihui An, Yan Liu, Yin Zhuang, Yubang Wang, Mingdong Sun and Qiujin Xu
Water 2024, 16(11), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111567 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
Microplastics in drinking water have attracted increasing global concerns due to their potential adverse impacts on human health. However, there needs to be more knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of microplastics in drinking water systems from water sources to household tap water.
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Microplastics in drinking water have attracted increasing global concerns due to their potential adverse impacts on human health. However, there needs to be more knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of microplastics in drinking water systems from water sources to household tap water. Herein, laser direct infrared spectroscopy is used to investigate the occurrence of microplastics in a typical drinking water plant with different water sources. Microplastic information is further used to understand microplastic fates during drinking water supply, including microplastic abundance, size, shape, and polymer type. Overall, the microplastic abundance in treated water ranges from 12.00 to 25.33 particles/L, higher than those in raw water (RW; 2.33–17.33 particles/L) and household water (HW; 8.00–19.67 particles/L), which shows that microplastics are not removed from RW. The main polymers in these microplastics are polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, and polypropylene. At the same time, the main microplastic shapes are fragments and fibers. Small-sized microplastics of 20–100 μm account for up to 76.74% and 79.30% of microplastics during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Additionally, more microplastics are detected in RW from rivers than those from reservoirs and lakes, and the microplastic abundance in the wet season is higher than that in the dry season. As expected, the potential ecological risk of microplastics in all waters is the I level, which is the lowest level. Most importantly, the annual microplastic intake of an adult via drinking water is 5063–18,301 microplastics, less than that reported in previous studies. These results provide valuable data on the fates of microplastics in drinking water supply systems from water sources to HW and promote authorities to update the treatment technologies for drinking water in the future to remove microplastics efficiently.
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(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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Reuse of Treated Slaughterhouse Wastewater from Immediate One-Step Lime Precipitation and Atmospheric Carbonation to Produce Aromatic Plants in Hydroponics
by
Luís Madeira, Margarida Ribau Teixeira, Sérgio Nunes, Adelaide Almeida and Fátima Carvalho
Water 2024, 16(11), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111566 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
The transition from the linear economy paradigm to the circular economy in industrial wastewater treatment is on the global agenda. The search for new simple, eco-innovative and low-cost processes for treating industrial wastewater, which can also be used by small- and medium-sized industries,
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The transition from the linear economy paradigm to the circular economy in industrial wastewater treatment is on the global agenda. The search for new simple, eco-innovative and low-cost processes for treating industrial wastewater, which can also be used by small- and medium-sized industries, has been a constant challenge to ensure environmental sustainability in all types of industries. The present work aimed to evaluate the suitability of the treated slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) obtained by the integrated process composed of immediate one-step lime precipitation (IOSLM) and atmospheric carbonation (AC) for the production of aromatic plants by hydroponics. Results showed a significant increase in plant height of 177 and 147% and root length of 64 and 37% for Pennyroyal and Chocolate Peppermint plants, respectively, after 26 days. No signs of toxicity or symptoms of micronutrient deficiency were detected in aromatic plants.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water, Wastewater and Waste Management for Sustainable Development)
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The Mechanism of the Influence of Different Irrigation Methods on Groundwater Recharge
by
Hongyuan Li, Guizhang Zhao, Simin Xie, Lingying Kong, Hongliang Li and Hepeng Zhang
Water 2024, 16(11), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111565 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
In the Yinchuan Plain, the main source of water supply for agricultural crops is irrigation infiltration. Therefore, the irrigation process, method, and time are crucial for the rational planning and utilization of water resources in the region. In this study, the effects of
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In the Yinchuan Plain, the main source of water supply for agricultural crops is irrigation infiltration. Therefore, the irrigation process, method, and time are crucial for the rational planning and utilization of water resources in the region. In this study, the effects of different irrigation methods on groundwater recharge were investigated through irrigation quadrat tests combined with numerical simulations. The water content at depths of 10–50 cm had a more significant response to irrigation than that at 80 and 100 cm in the intelligent irrigation quadrat. The water content change at depths of 10–50 cm was smaller than that at 80 and 100 cm in the flood irrigation quadrat. The flood irrigation method had a greater impact on the water content in the deep vadose zone. The water content of intelligent irrigation was concentrated at depths of 30–50 cm, with weak groundwater recharge. The water content of the flood irrigation quadrat was concentrated at depths of 50–80 cm, with a significant impact in the vertical direction. The simulation results indicated that flood irrigation had the best effect on groundwater recharge, with an infiltration recharge coefficient of 0.73, compared to intelligent irrigation, which had an infiltration recharge coefficient of 0.41. When the groundwater depth range was 0.65–3.8 m, the infiltration recharge efficiencies of intelligent and flood irrigation were the highest at groundwater depths of 1.3 and 1.8 m. Our findings provide a scientific basis for methods of rational irrigation, which could help save water resources in the study area.
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(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Water)
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Degradation of Sulfamethoxazole in Secondary Wastewater Based on Persulfate Activated by Citric-Acid-Complexed Ferrous Ion under Sunlight
by
Xinyang Chen, Yan Zhu, Yuhao Zhou, Guoxin Tang, Jiangang Han and Wei Li
Water 2024, 16(11), 1564; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111564 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
The narrow pH application range and lower utilization of ferrous ions (Fe(II)) restrict the application of Fe(II)/persulfate (PS) technology. In this paper, simulated sunlight and citric acid (Cit) as a chelator were introduced in an Fe(II)/PS system to overcome the drawbacks and enhance
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The narrow pH application range and lower utilization of ferrous ions (Fe(II)) restrict the application of Fe(II)/persulfate (PS) technology. In this paper, simulated sunlight and citric acid (Cit) as a chelator were introduced in an Fe(II)/PS system to overcome the drawbacks and enhance the degradation of typical antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in secondary wastewater. The degradation kinetics, mechanism, and influence factors of SMX in a sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit/PS system and a sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit system as a comparable system were investigated. The removal efficiency of SMX can reach 71.15% and 85.25% in the sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit system and sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit/PS system with 0.1 mM Fe(II), 0.6 mM Cit, and 1 mM PS. The increase of Fe(II) concentration in both systems proved that sunlight promoted the regeneration of Fe(II) from the ferric ion chelates. However, the Fe(II) concentration decreased after 30 min in the sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit/PS system because of the decomposition of Cit. Radical quencher experiments indicated that SO4·−, ·OH, and O2·− contributed 2.48%, 88.43%, and 6.91% to the removal of SMX, respectively. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectra also proved the formation of ·OH and O2·−. The degradation of SMX was proposed to proceed via isomerization, cleavage of S–N bond, and hydroxylation. Overall, the sunlight/Fe(II)/Cit/PS process can be used as an advanced treatment technology for antibiotics in municipal wastewater.
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(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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Hydrodynamic Simulation of Urban Waterlogging Based on an Improved Vertical Flow Exchange Method
by
Xi Jin and Yan Mu
Water 2024, 16(11), 1563; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111563 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
In the 1D–2D coupled simulation of urban waterlogging, the calculation process of vertical flow exchange is independent from the 1D hydraulic calculation, resulting in a failure to consider the node head and pipe flow during the exchange flow calculation, which may lead to
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In the 1D–2D coupled simulation of urban waterlogging, the calculation process of vertical flow exchange is independent from the 1D hydraulic calculation, resulting in a failure to consider the node head and pipe flow during the exchange flow calculation, which may lead to irrational results and further affect the stability of the model calculation. However, setting an upper limit for the exchange flow may introduce excessive subjective factors into the simulation process. In this study, a vertical flow exchange method based on the water balance of nodes is proposed. When a node is in an overloaded state, the calculation of vertical flow exchange at the node is integrated into the 1D hydraulic simulation process, thus taking into consideration the influence of the node head and pipe flow when calculating vertical flow exchange. Additionally, the iterative solution method used in the 1D hydraulic model ensures numerical harmony between the vertical flow exchange, node head and pipe flow, thus ensuring the stability of the coupled calculation. For the non-overloaded nodes, the calculation of the vertical flow exchange was conducted using a variable-head orifice discharge formula, enabling the consideration of changes in the surface water depth during the calculation of the node backflow. Using the InfoWorks ICM model as a benchmark, a comparative analysis of case simulation results demonstrated that the improved vertical flow exchange method was able to accurately and stably simulate the process of vertical flow exchange. When used with the improved vertical exchange method, the coupled model gave simulation results that closely matched those of the benchmark model.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Hydraulic Engineering and Hydrological Modelling)
Open AccessArticle
Modelling Approach for Assessment of Groundwater Potential of the Moghra Aquifer, Egypt, for Extensive Rural Development
by
Ahmed Shalby, Bakenaz A. Zeidan, Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik, Abdelazim M. Negm and Asaad M. Armanuos
Water 2024, 16(11), 1562; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111562 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Groundwater-dependent cultivation is imperative to meet the ever-increasing food demands in Egypt. To explore the Moghra aquifer’s potential, where a large-scale rural community is being established, a finite element groundwater flow (i.e., FEFLOW®) model was invoked. The developed model was calibrated
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Groundwater-dependent cultivation is imperative to meet the ever-increasing food demands in Egypt. To explore the Moghra aquifer’s potential, where a large-scale rural community is being established, a finite element groundwater flow (i.e., FEFLOW®) model was invoked. The developed model was calibrated against the observed water levels. GRACE-based groundwater storage was incorporated into the tuning procedure of the developed model. Eight abstraction rates from 1000 wells, changing from 800 to 1500 m3/day/well, were simulated for a 100-year test period. The maximum resulting drawdown values, respectively, ranged from 59 to 112 m equating to about 20–40% of the aquifer’s saturated thickness. The implications of the climate change from gradual sea level rise and an increase in crop consumptive water use were investigated. Extending seawater invasion into the aquifer caused a slight increase in the piezometric levels within a narrow strip along the seaside. Applying a chronologically increasing withdrawal rate to meet the projected increment in crop water requirements raised the maximum resulting drawdown by about 7.5%. The sustainable exploitation regime was defined as a time-increasing withdrawal rate adequate to reclaim 85,715 acres (34,688 ha). The recommended development scheme is compatible with the withdrawal rationing rule, aiming to maintain that the resulting drawdown does not exceed one meter a year.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Depletion: Current Trends and Future Challenges to Mitigate the Phenomenon)
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Novel Ensemble Learning Approach for Predicting COD and TN: Model Development and Implementation
by
Qiangqiang Cheng, Ji-Yeon Kim, Yu Wang, Xianghao Ren, Yingjie Guo, Jeong-Hyun Park, Sung-Gwan Park, Sang-Youp Lee, Guili Zheng, Yawei Wang, Young-Jae Lee and Moon-Hyun Hwang
Water 2024, 16(11), 1561; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111561 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) generate useful data, but effectively utilizing these data remains a challenge. This study developed novel ensemble tree-based models to enhance real-time predictions of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations, which are difficult to monitor directly. The
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Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) generate useful data, but effectively utilizing these data remains a challenge. This study developed novel ensemble tree-based models to enhance real-time predictions of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations, which are difficult to monitor directly. The effectiveness of these models, particularly the Voting Regressor, was demonstrated by achieving excellent predictive performance even with the small, volatile, and interconnected datasets typical of WWTP scenarios. By utilizing real-time sensor data from the anaerobic–anoxic–oxic (A2O) process, the model successfully predicted COD concentrations with an R² of 0.7722 and TN concentrations with an R² of 0.9282. In addition, a novel approach was proposed to assess A2O process performance by analyzing the correlation between the predicted C/N ratio and the removal efficiencies of COD and TN. During a one and a half year monitoring period, the predicted C/N ratio accurately reflected changes in COD and TN removal efficiencies across the different A2O bioreactors. The results provide real-time COD and TN predictions and a method for assessing A2O process performance based on the C/N ratio, which can significantly aid in the operation and maintenance of biological wastewater treatment processes.
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(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
Open AccessArticle
Copula-Probabilistic Flood Risk Analysis with an Hourly Flood Monitoring Index
by
Ravinesh Chand, Thong Nguyen-Huy, Ravinesh C. Deo, Sujan Ghimire, Mumtaz Ali and Afshin Ghahramani
Water 2024, 16(11), 1560; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111560 - 29 May 2024
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Floods are a common natural disaster whose severity in terms of duration, water resource volume, peak, and accumulated rainfall-based damage is likely to differ significantly for different geographical regions. In this paper, we first propose a novel hourly flood index (
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Floods are a common natural disaster whose severity in terms of duration, water resource volume, peak, and accumulated rainfall-based damage is likely to differ significantly for different geographical regions. In this paper, we first propose a novel hourly flood index ( ) derived from normalising the existing 24-hourly water resources index ( ) in the literature to monitor flood risk on an hourly scale. The proposed is adopted to identify a flood situation and derive its characteristics, such as the duration (D), volume (V), and peak (Q). The comprehensive result analysis establishes the practical utility of in identifying flood situations at seven study sites in Fiji between 2014 and 2018 and deriving their characteristics (i.e., D, V, and Q). Secondly, this study develops a vine copula-probabilistic risk analysis system that models the joint distribution of flood characteristics (i.e., D, V, and Q) to extract their joint exceedance probability for the seven study sites in Fiji, enabling probabilistic flood risk assessment. The vine copula approach, particularly suited to Fiji’s study sites, introduces a novel probabilistic framework for flood risk assessment. The results show moderate differences in the spatial patterns of joint exceedance probability of flood characteristics in different combination scenarios generated by the proposed vine copula approach. In the worst-case scenario, the probability of any flood event occurring where the flood volume, peak, and duration are likely to exceed the 95th-quantile value (representing an extreme flood event) is found to be less than 5% for all study sites. The proposed hourly flood index and the vine copula approach can be feasible and cost-effective tools for flood risk monitoring and assessment. The methodologies proposed in this study can be applied to other data-scarce regions where only rainfall data are available, offering crucial information for flood risk monitoring and assessment and for the development of effective mitigation strategies.
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Open AccessArticle
An Evaluation and Reduction Approach for the Ground Vibration Induced by High Dam Flood Discharge
by
Jijian Lian, Yan Zheng, Chao Liang, Yutong Li, Bin Ma, Fang Liu and Ye Yao
Water 2024, 16(11), 1559; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111559 - 29 May 2024
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Ground vibration induced by high dam flood discharge has been reported to cause severe structure safety threats and environmental issues. In this paper, an evaluation and reduction approach for ground vibration using systematic and comprehensive studies is proposed. Based on the results of
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Ground vibration induced by high dam flood discharge has been reported to cause severe structure safety threats and environmental issues. In this paper, an evaluation and reduction approach for ground vibration using systematic and comprehensive studies is proposed. Based on the results of hydraulic physical model tests, the hydrodynamic excitation on the stilling basin plate (SBP) is analytically expressed as spatially variable harmonic loads by the three-dimensional least squares method. Afterwards, a theoretical model for the SBP–foundation coupled system is established and the vibration of SBP subjected to analytical hydrodynamic load input is calculated. The ground vibration is further evaluated through the numerical simulation regarding the SBP vibration as the input load. According to the prototype test result, it is found that the variation trend of evaluation results under different working conditions is consistent with the actual situation, which indicates the effectiveness of this evaluation approach. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis of SBP physical dimensions to ground vibration is conducted, and an optimized design for SBP is presented as a result. The verification results indicate that ground vibration can be significantly reduced by applying SBP optimization.
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Open AccessArticle
Kinetics of Obtaining Microalgal Biomass and Removal of Organic Contaminants in Photobioreactors Operated with Microalgae—Study Case: Treatment of Wastewater from a Poultry Slaughterhouse
by
Solmaría Mandi Pérez-Guzmán, Eduardo Hernández-Aguilar, Alejandro Alvarado-Lassman and Juan Manuel Méndez-Contreras
Water 2024, 16(11), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111558 - 29 May 2024
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Increases in poultry industry production have resulted in the generation of more hazardous effluents with high nitrogen and chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentrations. It is necessary to develop more efficient technologies in terms of water purification without the need to increase the volumes
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Increases in poultry industry production have resulted in the generation of more hazardous effluents with high nitrogen and chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentrations. It is necessary to develop more efficient technologies in terms of water purification without the need to increase the volumes of commonly used reactors. This work analyzed the addition of micronutrients (Mo, Zn, Cu, and Mn) for the cultivation of the microalgae Chlorella spp. and Spirulina maxima in poultry wastewater. The effects of micronutrients on the production of biomass and algal cells were also assessed. For the Chlorella species, removal efficiencies of up to 99.14% for COD and 99.33% for nitrogen were achieved; for the Spirulina strain, these efficiencies were 98% for COD and 99% for nitrogen. The modified Gompertz equation was used to analyze the kinetic parameters. For both microalgae, the R2 values were greater than 98%. The results indicated that the dose with the highest algal cell generation rate was dose 2 for Chlorella spp., at 4.35 days, and dose 1 for Spirulina maxima, at 6.26 days. Microalgae are biological alternatives suitable for wastewater treatment, and their pollutant removal efficiency can increase with the addition of micronutrients, which has additional benefits for the production of valuable biomasses for industrial applications.
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Open AccessReview
Elements and Processes Required for the Development of a Spring-Breakup Ice-Jam Flood Forecasting System (Churchill River, Atlantic Canada)
by
Karl-Erich Lindenschmidt, Robert Briggs, Amir Ali Khan and Thomas Puestow
Water 2024, 16(11), 1557; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111557 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Spring-breakup ice-jam floods are a major hazard for many rivers in cold regions. They can cause severe damage to infrastructure, property, and ecosystems along riverbanks. To reduce the risk and impact of these events, it is essential to develop reliable and timely forecasting
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Spring-breakup ice-jam floods are a major hazard for many rivers in cold regions. They can cause severe damage to infrastructure, property, and ecosystems along riverbanks. To reduce the risk and impact of these events, it is essential to develop reliable and timely forecasting systems that can provide early warning and guidance for mitigation actions. In this paper, we highlight the elements and processes required for the successful development of a spring-breakup ice-jam flood forecasting system, using the lower Churchill River in Labrador, Canada as a case study. We review the existing forecasting methodologies and systems for spring-breakup ice-jam floods and discuss their strengths and limitations. We then describe the case study of the lower Churchill River, where a large ice-jam flood occurred in May 2017, triggering an independent review and a series of recommendations for improving the flood preparedness and response. We present the main components and features of the forecasting system that was developed for the lower Churchill River, based on the recommendations from the independent review. We also discuss the improvements that were made to the forecasting system, such as parallelization, adaptation, and determination of ice-jam prone areas. Finally, we provide some conclusions and recommendations for future research and development of spring-breakup ice-jam flood forecasting systems, focusing on the requirements for a technical framework that incorporates community engagement and special considerations for regulated rivers.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing the Monitoring and Modelling of Freshwater Systems with New Remote Sensing Technologies)
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Open AccessArticle
Risk Identification of Mountain Torrent Hazard Using Machine Learning and Bayesian Model Averaging Techniques
by
Ya Chu, Weifeng Song and Dongbin Chen
Water 2024, 16(11), 1556; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111556 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Frequent mountain torrent disasters have caused significant losses to human life and wealth security and restricted the economic and social development of mountain areas. Therefore, accurate identification of mountain torrent hazards is crucial for disaster prevention and reduction. In this study, based on
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Frequent mountain torrent disasters have caused significant losses to human life and wealth security and restricted the economic and social development of mountain areas. Therefore, accurate identification of mountain torrent hazards is crucial for disaster prevention and reduction. In this study, based on historical mountain torrent hazards, a mountain torrent hazard prediction model was established by using Bayesian Model Average (BMA) and three classic machine learning algorithms (gradient-boosted decision tree (GBDT), backpropagation neural network (BP), and random forest (RF)). The mountain torrent hazard condition factors used in modeling were distance to river, elevation, precipitation, slope, gross domestic product (GDP), population, and land use type. Based on the proposed BMA model, flood risk maps were produced using GIS. The results demonstrated that the BMA model significantly improved upon the accuracy and stability of single models in identifying mountain torrent hazards. The F1-values (comprehensively displays the Precision and Recall) of the BMA model under three sets of test samples at different locations were 3.31–24.61% higher than those of single models. The risk assessment results of mountain torrents found that high-risk areas were mainly concentrated in the northern border and southern valleys of Yuanyang County, China. In addition, the feature importance analysis result demonstrated that distance to river and elevation were the most important factors affecting mountain torrent hazards. The construction of projects in mountainous areas should be as far away from rivers and low-lying areas as possible. The results of this study can provide a scientific basis for improving the identification methods of mountain torrent hazards and assisting decision-makers in the implementation of appropriate measures for mountain torrent hazard prevention and reduction.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Flood Modelling and Risk Management)
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