Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022)
Latest Articles
Water Quality and the First-Flush Effect in Roof-Based Rainwater Harvesting, Part I: Water Quality and Soil Accumulation
Water 2024, 16(10), 1402; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101402 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Rainfall runoff may be captured and stored for later use, but the quality of this water can be detrimental in some uses without the use of appropriately designed first-flush diverters. The rainfall runoff water quality was measured on nineteen new small-scale and two
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Rainfall runoff may be captured and stored for later use, but the quality of this water can be detrimental in some uses without the use of appropriately designed first-flush diverters. The rainfall runoff water quality was measured on nineteen new small-scale and two aged commercial roofs located near high traffic highways. Roof coverings included asphalt shingles, sheet metal, clay tiles, and tar and gravel. Runoff samples were evaluated for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs), and pyrethroid insecticides. Eighteen small-scale roofs were subjected to a range of simulated rainfall events, while natural runoff was sampled on the commercial roofs and one small-scale roof. Runoff was analyzed for pH, conductivity, turbidity, total suspended solids, boron, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, sodium adsorption ratio, nitrate-nitrogen, seventeen PAHs, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate, tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate, bifenthrin, cypermethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin. Samples from four natural storm events were also analyzed for total coliforms and Escherichia coli. In addition, soils below seventeen existing gutter downspouts were sampled to determine long-term pollutant accumulation. Atmospheric deposition was the main contributor of pollutants in the roof runoff. A majority of samples fell within the U.S. EPA guidelines for non-potable urban and agricultural water reuse. Trace levels of PAHs, PFRs, and insecticides were detected, but all detections were three orders of magnitude below the USGS health-based screening level benchmark concentrations. Results indicate that diverting the first flush, based on turbidity, total suspended solids, or conductivity, can improve the overall water quality and reduce the concentrations of PAHs in harvested rainwater. Downspout soil sampling showed potential for the long-term accumulation of PAHs at concentrations exceeding the minimum human-health risk-based screening levels at these high runoff-loading locations.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Engineered Phenomena Impacting the Fate, Transport and Treatment of Environmental Contaminants)
Open AccessArticle
Toward Decontamination in Coastal Regions: Groundwater Quality, Fluoride, Nitrate, and Human Health Risk Assessments within Multi-Aquifer Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia
by
Mohamed A. Yassin, Sani I. Abba, Syed Muzzamil Hussain Shah, Abdullahi G. Usman, Johnbosco C. Egbueri, Johnson C. Agbasi, Abid Khogali, Husam Musa Baalousha, Isam H. Aljundi, Saad Sha. Sammen and Miklas Scholz
Water 2024, 16(10), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101401 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Contamination in coastal regions attributed to fluoride and nitrate cannot be disregarded, given the substantial environmental and public health issues they present worldwide. For effective decontamination, it is pivotal to identify regional pollution hotspots. This comprehensive study was performed to assess the spatial
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Contamination in coastal regions attributed to fluoride and nitrate cannot be disregarded, given the substantial environmental and public health issues they present worldwide. For effective decontamination, it is pivotal to identify regional pollution hotspots. This comprehensive study was performed to assess the spatial as well as indexical water quality, identify contamination sources, hotspots, and evaluate associated health risks pertaining to nitrate and fluoride in the Al-Hassa region, KSA. The physicochemical results revealed a pervasive pollution of the overall groundwater. The dominant water type was Na-Cl, indicating saltwater intrusion and reverse ion exchange impact. Spatiotemporal variations in physicochemical properties suggest diverse hydrochemical mechanisms, with geogenic factors primarily influencing groundwater chemistry. The groundwater pollution index varied between 0.8426 and 4.7172, classifying samples as moderately to very highly polluted. Similarly, the synthetic pollution index (in the range of 0.5021–4.0715) revealed that none of the samples had excellent water quality, with various degrees of pollution categories. Nitrate health quotient (HQ) values indicated chronic human health risks ranging from low to severe, with infants being the most vulnerable. Household use of nitrate-rich groundwater for showering and cleaning did not pose significant health risks. Fluoride HQ decreased with age, and children faced the highest risk of fluorosis. The hazard index (HI) yielded moderate- to high-risk values. Nitrate risks were 1.21 times higher than fluoride risks, as per average HI assessment. All samples fell into the vulnerable category based on the total hazard index (THI), with 88.89% classified as very high risk. This research provides valuable insights into groundwater quality, guiding water authorities, inhabitants, and researchers in identifying safe water sources, vulnerable regions, and human populations. The results highlight the need for appropriate treatment techniques and long-term coastal groundwater management plans.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Coastal Water Quality Modelling)
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Open AccessArticle
Removal of Dyes from Water Using Aluminum-Based Water Treatment Sludge as a Low-Cost Coagulant: Use of Response Surface Methodology
by
Abderrezzaq Benalia, Kerroum Derbal, Ouiem Baatache, Cheima Lehchili, Amel Khalfaoui and Antonio Pizzi
Water 2024, 16(10), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101400 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
The aim of this research was to valorize waste (sludge) from a drinking water treatment plant as a coagulant in the removal of dyes (methylene blue and crystal violet) from water and to prevent environmental issues associated with sludge storage. To accomplish this
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The aim of this research was to valorize waste (sludge) from a drinking water treatment plant as a coagulant in the removal of dyes (methylene blue and crystal violet) from water and to prevent environmental issues associated with sludge storage. To accomplish this purpose, the response surface methodology based on a central composite design with five levels was implemented. In order to enhance the efficacy of the coagulation–flocculation process, three key operational variables were considered for optimization: the pH, coagulant dosage (mg/L), and initial dye concentration (mg/L). To achieve this, a quadratic polynomial model was established. According to the mathematical model that has been developed, it is predicted that the highest efficiency for removing dyes is 94.44%. This maximum effectiveness is reached when the pH is adjusted to 12.04, the coagulant dose is set at 87.044 mg/L, and the dye concentration of MB is maintained at 2.955 mg/L. Conversely, the best dye removal of CV was attained at 100% under the following conditions: pH = 12.045, a coagulant dosage of 2.955 mg/L, and a dye concentration of 2.955 mg/L. The R2 (98.44% and 95.80% for MB and CV, respectively) validated both models. In this work, the coagulant was characterized by the surface charge, FTIR, BET, and SEM analysis.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
Open AccessArticle
Wastewater Treatment Plants Performance for Reuse: Evaluation of Bacterial and Viral Risks
by
Ileana Federigi, Roberto Salvadori, Giulia Lauretani, Anna Leone, Simone Lippi, Francesca Marvulli, Alessandra Pagani, Marco Verani and Annalaura Carducci
Water 2024, 16(10), 1399; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101399 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Reusing reclaimed water is of paramount importance to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 13. In Europe, a recent Regulation set minimum requirements for water reuse in agriculture. However, some challenges remain considering microbial risks and their prevention. In
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Reusing reclaimed water is of paramount importance to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 13. In Europe, a recent Regulation set minimum requirements for water reuse in agriculture. However, some challenges remain considering microbial risks and their prevention. In this study, two urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were investigated from the perspective of reuse. A five-year investigation was performed on routine monitoring parameters collected under different weather conditions (wet/dry) and treatments (chlorination/non-chlorination) in inlet and outlet samples. Moreover, a three-month investigation focused on microbial parameters, including indicators, index pathogens (Human Adenovirus—HAdV, Salmonella spp.), and other viral pathogens (norovirus, enterovirus, and SARS-CoV-2). The long-term study revealed the compliance of both WWTPs for chemical parameters (organic substances and solids) in more than 90% of samples, whereas for Escherichia coli, the compliance ranged from 96.1% with chlorination under dry weather to 16.7% without chlorination in wet days. E. coli was positively associated with chemical oxygen demand (COD), which could be a promising and online measurable proxy of E. coli. The study on microbial performance demonstrated sound reliability in detecting E. coli as a suitable surrogate for Salmonella in chlorinated effluents, but neither bacterial nor viral indicators are able to represent HAdV. Although chlorination was able to remove most of the pathogens considered, the compliance with microbial indicators seems insufficient to represent viral water safety.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Water Cycle: Impact of Treated Wastewater on Water Quality and Human Health Risks)
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Open AccessArticle
Modeling Forest Snow Using Relative Canopy Structure Metrics
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C. David Moeser, Graham Sexstone and Jake Kurzweil
Water 2024, 16(10), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101398 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Snow and watershed models typically do not account for forest structure and shading; therefore, they display substantial uncertainty when attempting to account for forest change or when comparing hydrological response between forests with varying characteristics. This study collected snow water equivalent (SWE) measurements
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Snow and watershed models typically do not account for forest structure and shading; therefore, they display substantial uncertainty when attempting to account for forest change or when comparing hydrological response between forests with varying characteristics. This study collected snow water equivalent (SWE) measurements in a snow-dominated forest in Colorado, the United States, with variable canopy structure. The SWE measurements were integrated with 1 m Lidar derived canopy structure metrics and incoming solar radiation to create empirical SWE offset equations for four canopy structure groupings (forest gaps, south-facing forest edges, north-facing forest edges, and the interior forest) that varied in size compared to an open area. These simple equations indirectly integrate terrain shading and canopy shading and were able to estimate 40 to 70% of SWE variation in a heterogenous forested environment. The equations were then applied to a snow melt model with a 100 m grid size by applying the area-weighted average of SWE offsets from the four canopy structure groupings in each model cell. This tiled model configuration allowed for the model to better represent the subgrid heterogeneity of a forest environment that can be seen through an ensemble or range of potential outputs rather than a singular estimate.
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(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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Open AccessArticle
A Numerical Model of the Pollutant Transport in Rivers with Multi-Layer Rigid Vegetation
by
Weidong Xuan, Chenggang Yang, Xiang Wu, Yiting Shao and Yu Bai
Water 2024, 16(10), 1397; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101397 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
River water pollution is a key environmental issue to human society. How to effectively simulate the flow velocity and pollution transport in a vegetated river can provide a theoretical basis for solving such problems. Based on previous experimental data, this article uses the
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River water pollution is a key environmental issue to human society. How to effectively simulate the flow velocity and pollution transport in a vegetated river can provide a theoretical basis for solving such problems. Based on previous experimental data, this article uses the lattice Boltzmann method and random displacement method to simulate the velocity distribution and nutrient transport in multi-layer rigid vegetated rivers. The simulation results indicate that incorporating the drag force of the vegetation into the model according to different vegetation layers can effectively simulate the velocity in a multi-layer vegetated river. Incorporating the turbulent diffusion and mechanical diffusion effects of nutrients caused by vegetation into the model can effectively simulate the effects of multi-layer vegetation on nutrient transport. This model can provide effective predictions of the flow velocity and pollution transport in multi-layer vegetation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluvial Hydraulics in Vegetated Channels)
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Open AccessArticle
Water Point and Non-Point Nitrogen Pollution Due to Land-Use Change and Nitrate Deposition in China from 2000 to 2020
by
Xiaoning Zhao, Jiawei Shi, Lihua Xue, Wenwen Li, Kazem Zamanian, Jiangang Han and Shuang Chen
Water 2024, 16(10), 1396; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101396 - 14 May 2024
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Water N-NO3− (mg L−1) pollution is attracting global concern in the face of combating climate change and human health risks. However, there have been comparatively few comprehensively researched studies on water N-NO3− pollution with respect to N-NO
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Water N-NO3− (mg L−1) pollution is attracting global concern in the face of combating climate change and human health risks. However, there have been comparatively few comprehensively researched studies on water N-NO3− pollution with respect to N-NO3− deposition, soil nitrogen, and land-use changes. We collected a total of 7707 published sampling points on N-NO3− surface and groundwater during flooding and non-flooding seasons during 2000–2020 in China. The types of water N-NO3− pollution (>20) can be categorized as point pollution (ΔTN ≤ 0 or > 1.5) and non-point pollution (0 < ΔTN ≤ 1.5), which were then assessed with respect to soil nitrogen (ΔTN g kg−1) and water N-NO3− changes in this study. We found non-point pollution was concentrated in the Huaihe River Basin and Haihe River Basin with higher urbanization (+6%, +4%), cropland (72%, 45%), nitrogen fertilization (g m−2 yr−1) (>10), and increased wet N-NO3− deposition (WND) (kg ha−1 yr−1) (+4.6, +3). The Haihe River Basin was found to have the highest N-NO3− on its surface (306) and in its groundwater (868) and nitrogen fertilization (32). Point pollution was concentrated in the Songhua and Liaohe River Basin with the highest WND (+7.9) but slow urbanization (+1%). N-NO3− increased during the flooding season compared with the no-flooding season in serious pollution areas. N-NO3− increased in the Liaohe River and middle and low Yangtze River but was reduced in the Weihe River. Therefore, stringent criteria and management, especially during the flooding season are urgently required to mitigate the degree of N-NO3− water pollution that occurs due to intensive agriculture and urbanization with increased N-NO3− deposition.
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of the Geothermal System in the Woka-Cuona Rift Zone, Tibet
by
Wen Zhang, Jiansong Peng and Yong Liu
Water 2024, 16(10), 1395; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101395 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
The Woka-Cuona rift zone on the southeastern side of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is characterized by complex geological background conditions, comprising three independent or semi-grabens that traverse from south to north across the Himalayan and Gangdise terranes. Conducting research on the distribution patterns and
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The Woka-Cuona rift zone on the southeastern side of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is characterized by complex geological background conditions, comprising three independent or semi-grabens that traverse from south to north across the Himalayan and Gangdise terranes. Conducting research on the distribution patterns and genesis mechanisms of geothermal resources within the Woka-Cuona rift zone has certain guiding significance for understanding the genesis mechanisms of the geothermal system in the southern Tibetan rift and its exploitation. This paper utilized methods such as data collection, ground investigations, and geochemical analyses to analyze the distribution characteristics and evolutionary processes of geothermal waters in the Cuona rift area based on the geological background conditions of the study area. The research findings demonstrate a significant correlation between the occurrence of geothermal waters in the Cuona rift zone and geological structures, with most geothermal waters primarily distributed near intersections of graben boundary faults and east–west-trending faults. Different regions exhibit variations in the intensity of geothermal activity and geochemical characteristics, with the genesis of geothermal waters associated with deep magmatic activity, characterized by Na+ and K+ as the primary cations and Cl− as the primary anions. Geothermal waters mainly originate from atmospheric precipitation and snowmelt water from surrounding mountainous areas, with recharge elevations ranging from 4500 to 6200 m and an average elevation of 5400 m.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isotope Geochemistry of Groundwater: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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Open AccessArticle
Simulation of Sloped-Bed Tuned Liquid Dampers Using a Nonlinear Shallow Water Model
by
Mahdiyar Khanpour, Abdolmajid Mohammadian, Hamidreza Shirkhani and Reza Kianoush
Water 2024, 16(10), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101394 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
This research aims to develop an efficient and accurate model for simulating tuned liquid dampers (TLDs) with sloped beds. The model, based on nonlinear shallow water equations, is enhanced by introducing new terms tailored to each specific case. It employs the central upwind
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This research aims to develop an efficient and accurate model for simulating tuned liquid dampers (TLDs) with sloped beds. The model, based on nonlinear shallow water equations, is enhanced by introducing new terms tailored to each specific case. It employs the central upwind method and Minmod limiter functions for flux and interface variable assessment, ensuring both high accuracy and reasonable computational cost. While acceleration, slope, and dissipation are treated as explicit sources, an implicit scheme is utilized for dispersion discretization to enhance the model’s stability, resulting in matrix equations. Time discretization uses the fourth-order Runge–Kutta scheme for precision. The performance of the model has been evaluated using several test cases including dam-breaks on flat and inclined beds and run-up and run-down simulations over parabolic beds, which are relevant to sloshing in tanks with sloped beds. It accurately predicts phenomena such as asymmetric sloshing waves, especially in sloped beds, where pronounced waves occur. Dispersion and dissipation terms are crucial for capturing these effects and maintaining stable wave patterns. An initial perturbation method assesses the tank’s natural period and numerical diffusion. Furthermore, the model integrates with a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system to create a TLD model, demonstrating enhanced damping effects with sloped beds.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydraulic and Water Resources Research (2nd Edition))
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Open AccessArticle
Ecological Response of Enzyme Activities in Watershed Sediments to the Reintroduction of Antibiotics
by
Yue Lu, Yongshan Chen, Jinghua Xu, Ying Feng and Jinping Jiang
Water 2024, 16(10), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101393 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
The impact of antibiotic residue on sediment ecology at the watershed level is not yet fully understood. In this investigation, varying concentrations of oxytetracycline (OTC) and sulfadiazine (SD) were added to the overlying water of both the upper (0–10 cm) and bottom sediment
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The impact of antibiotic residue on sediment ecology at the watershed level is not yet fully understood. In this investigation, varying concentrations of oxytetracycline (OTC) and sulfadiazine (SD) were added to the overlying water of both the upper (0–10 cm) and bottom sediment (20–30 cm) layers at the watershed scale to evaluate the ecological impact on sediment habitats through the analysis of the activities of enzymes, namely urease (UA), alkaline phosphatase (APA), peroxidase (POA), and dehydrogenase (DHA). Results showed that the levels of UA and APA in the bottom sediment layers exceeded those in the top sediment layer upon reintroduction of antibiotics. Conversely, the fluctuations in DHA were notably reduced across various types of antibiotics and exposure concentrations in the bottom sediment layers. Within the top sediment layers, as the concentration of OTC exposure increased, there was a corresponding elevation in POA levels. However, the response of POA initially ascended and subsequently descended with rising SD exposure concentration, although it consistently exceeded the control levels. In contrast, the response of DHA displayed an inverse correlation with OTC exposure concentration but a direct correlation with SD exposure concentration. At the watershed scale, under antibiotic exposure, UA and DHA exhibited significantly higher levels upstream compared to downstream. Conversely, APA and POA appeared relatively stable across the watershed following the reintroduction of antibiotics. Moreover, DHA demonstrated a noticeable decreasing trend with increasing concentrations of OTC exposure. Environmental factors had a predominant influence, exceeding 40%, on enzyme activities during antibiotic reintroduction. Specifically, particle size significantly inhibited enzyme activity, while sediment nutrient conditions, including total carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur content, significantly enhanced enzyme activities. The study suggests that enzyme activities associated with antibiotic reintroduction in watershed sediments are established during stable stages in the bottom sediment layer or downstream sediment environment as part of sedimentary and transport processes. More research is required to explore the maintenance and evolution of antibiotic resistance profiles in the presence of long-term antibiotic residues.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Aquatic Environment Research for Sustainable Development)
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Salt Drainage Efficiency and Anti-Clogging Effects of Subsurface Pipes Wrapped with Geotextiles
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Xu Wang, Yonghong Zhang, Liqin Fan and Jingli Shen
Water 2024, 16(10), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101392 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Subsurface drainage pipes covered with filters and geotextiles are the key to preventing clogging and ensuring efficient drainage. To improve the salt discharge efficiency of these subsurface drainage pipes, different layers of geotextiles were set outside the pipes with the aid of uniform
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Subsurface drainage pipes covered with filters and geotextiles are the key to preventing clogging and ensuring efficient drainage. To improve the salt discharge efficiency of these subsurface drainage pipes, different layers of geotextiles were set outside the pipes with the aid of uniform gravel filters. This paper reports our findings from laboratory simulation of subsurface drainage pipes and experiments. The study examined the influence of different layers of geotextiles on the drainage efficiency, salt discharge effects of subsurface drainage pipes, and the effect of superimposed geotextiles on the salt drainage efficiency as well as the anti-clogging effect of subsurface drainage pipes. The results are as follows: (1) The geotextile and filter material wrapped around the subsurface pipe facilitated the movement of water towards the subsurface pipe, which could promote the salt discharge of the subsurface pipe. However, in the single leaching experiment, the reduction in soil pH was not significant for different scenarios. (2) The salt removal rate of the geotextile-wrapped subsurface pipes was more than 95%. The salt removal rate of the double-layer geotextile scenario was the highest (96.7%), and the total salt content of soil profiles was 8.3% and 31.3% lower than those of the single-layer and triple-layer geotextile scenarios, respectively. The drainage efficiency of the double-layer geotextile scenario was the highest, and the salt distribution in the 0–60 cm profile was relatively uniform, ranging from 2.3 to 3.0 g∙kg−1. (3) The clogging in the triple-layer geotextile scenario was caused by the geotextile, i.e., a dense filter cake layer formed on the surface of the geotextile. The clogging in the single-layer and double-layer geotextile scenarios was the clogging of the geotextile itself, i.e., soil particles retained in the fiber structure of geotextiles. (4) In the case of the single-layer and double-layer geotextile scenarios, the soil particles failed to completely clog the selected geotextiles, and there were still a large number of pores retained. The double-layer geotextiles integrate filtration, clogging prevention, and drainage promotion to provide the best salt drainage with the subsurface pipe. This study reveals the influence of the filter on soil water salt and salt discharge and provides a theoretical explanation and technical justification for the application of the subsurface pipes salt discharge technology in saline soil ameliorate.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Hydrology on Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation)
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Effect of Irrigation Water Quality and Soil Compost Treatment on Salinity Management to Improve Soil Health and Plant Yield
by
Subanky Suvendran, David Johnson, Miguel Acevedo, Breana Smithers and Pei Xu
Water 2024, 16(10), 1391; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101391 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Increasing soil salinity and degraded irrigation water quality are major challenges for agriculture. This study investigated the effects of irrigation water quality and incorporating compost (3% dry mass in soil) on minimizing soil salinization and promoting sustainable cropping systems. A greenhouse study used
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Increasing soil salinity and degraded irrigation water quality are major challenges for agriculture. This study investigated the effects of irrigation water quality and incorporating compost (3% dry mass in soil) on minimizing soil salinization and promoting sustainable cropping systems. A greenhouse study used brackish water (electrical conductivity of 2010 µS/cm) and agricultural water (792 µS/cm) to irrigate Dundale pea and clay loam soil. Compost treatment enhanced soil water retention with soil moisture content above 0.280 m3/m3, increased plant carbon assimilation by ~30%, improved plant growth by >50%, and reduced NO3− leaching from the soil by 16% and 23.5% for agricultural and brackish water irrigation, respectively. Compared to no compost treatment, the compost-incorporated soil irrigated with brackish water showed the highest plant growth by increasing plant fresh weight by 64%, dry weight by 50%, root length by 121%, and plant height by 16%. Compost treatment reduced soil sodicity during brackish water irrigation by promoting the leaching of Cl− and Na+ from the soil. Compost treatment provides an environmentally sustainable approach to managing soil salinity, remediating the impact of brackish water irrigation, improving soil organic matter, enhancing the availability of water and nutrients to plants, and increasing plant growth and carbon sequestration potential.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Water Use and Irrigation Management)
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Experimental Study on the Clogging Performance of Waste Slag
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Shibo Li, Jinduo Chen, Jianquan Ma, Hao Li, Hao Guo, Yongqiang Qiu, Fuli Han and Yashu Ji
Water 2024, 16(10), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101390 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
The fine particles around a mining area are easy to transport under the climatic and hydrological actions such as rainfall, that causes the change in the permeability of accumulated slag and increases the hazard probability of slag debris flow. In this study, eight
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The fine particles around a mining area are easy to transport under the climatic and hydrological actions such as rainfall, that causes the change in the permeability of accumulated slag and increases the hazard probability of slag debris flow. In this study, eight experiments were designed to discuss the influence of fine particle migration on the permeability characteristics and clogging of slag accumulation in different graded particles and different dry densities. The results of experiments with coarse slags of five different particle sizes show that the ratio ranging from four to six in the coarse slag size and fine size caused a significant clogging phenomenon. It is confirmed that the shape of the particles is one of the factors affecting the clogging of coarse soil besides the coarse and fine particle size, and the clogging assessment criterion for slag and the corresponding clogging patterns based on the slag shape characteristics are given. And through three kinds of different dry density-graded slag, three clogging experiments were completed to verify the clogging standard and clogging particle size. The experimental results show that the clogging particle size obtained by the clogging criteria can effectively reduce the permeability of slag accumulation, and it is considered that the equivalent particle size and particle shape characteristics are the main factors affecting the clogging performance of accumulation, while the dry density of deposits has no significant influence on it.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Landslides and Natural Resources)
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The Potential of AOP Pretreatment in the Biodegradation of PS and PVC Microplastics by Candida parapsilosis
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Kristina Bule Možar, Martina Miloloža, Viktorija Martinjak, Magdalena Ujević Bošnjak, Marinko Markić, Tomislav Bolanča, Matija Cvetnić, Dajana Kučić Grgić and Šime Ukić
Water 2024, 16(10), 1389; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101389 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Microplastics are an emerging class of recalcitrant organic pollutants that are of general scientific and public interest nowadays. It would be ideal to remove microplastics from the environment through biodegradation, as biodegradation is a highly ecological and economically acceptable approach. Unfortunately, the efficiency
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Microplastics are an emerging class of recalcitrant organic pollutants that are of general scientific and public interest nowadays. It would be ideal to remove microplastics from the environment through biodegradation, as biodegradation is a highly ecological and economically acceptable approach. Unfortunately, the efficiency of biodegradation of conventional plastic polymers is low. The application of a suitable pretreatment could increase the efficiency of biodegradation. In this study, the applicability of UV-C/H2O2 and UV-C/S2O82− advanced oxidation processes as pretreatments for the biodegradation of polystyrene and poly(vinyl chloride) microplastics by the yeast Candida parapsilosis was investigated. For the investigated range (pH 4–10, peroxide concentration up to 20 mM and treatment duration up to 90 min), the UV-C/H2O2 process proved to be more effective in degrading polystyrene microplastics, while the UV-C/S2O82− process was more efficient at degrading poly(vinyl chloride) microplastics. Samples pretreated under optimal conditions (90 min treatment time at a pH of 5.7 and H2O2 concentration of 20.0 mM for polystyrene samples; 90 min treatment time at a pH of 8.6 and S2O82− concentration of 11.1 mM for poly(vinyl chloride) samples) were subjected to biodegradation by Candida parapsilosis. The biodegradation conditions included an agitation speed of 156 rpm and an initial pH of 5.7 for the experiments with the polystyrene samples, while an agitation speed of 136 rpm and an initial pH of 4.9 were used for the poly(vinyl chloride) experiments. The initial value of the optical density of the yeast suspension was 1.0 in both cases. The experiments showed a positive effect of the pretreatment on the number of yeast cells on the surface of the microplastics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Science and Technology for Water Purification)
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A Multi-Point Joint Prediction Model for High-Arch Dam Deformation Considering Spatial and Temporal Correlation
by
Wenhan Cao, Zhiping Wen, Yanming Feng, Shuai Zhang and Huaizhi Su
Water 2024, 16(10), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101388 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Deformation monitoring for mass concrete structures such as high-arch dams is crucial to their safe operation. However, structure deformations are influenced by many complex factors, and deformations at different positions tend to have spatiotemporal correlation and variability, increasing the difficulty of deformation monitoring.
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Deformation monitoring for mass concrete structures such as high-arch dams is crucial to their safe operation. However, structure deformations are influenced by many complex factors, and deformations at different positions tend to have spatiotemporal correlation and variability, increasing the difficulty of deformation monitoring. A novel deep learning-based monitoring model for high-arch dams considering multifactor influences and spatiotemporal data correlations is proposed in this paper. First, the measurement points are clustered to capture the spatial relationship. Successive multivariate mode decomposition is applied to extract the common mode components among the correlated points as spatial influencing factors. Second, the relationship between various factors and deformation components is extracted using factor screening. Finally, a deep learning prediction model is constructed with stacked components to obtain the final prediction. The model is validated based on practical engineering. In nearly one year of high-arch dam deformation prediction, the root mean square error is 0.344 and the R2 is 0.998, showing that the modules within the framework positively contribute to enhancing prediction performance. The prediction results of different measurement points as well as the comparison results with benchmark models show its superiority and generality, providing an advancing and practical approach for engineering structural health monitoring, particularly for high-arch dams.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety Evaluation of Dam and Geotechnical Engineering, Volume II)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on the Typical Environmental Factors in the Middle Part of Zhoushan Fishery Based on HY-1C/D and Other Multi-Source Data
by
Xinkai Zhang, Lina Cai, Menghan Yu and Rong Tang
Water 2024, 16(10), 1387; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101387 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
This study utilizes satellite data, including HY-1C/D, along with reanalysis data, to unveil the typical environmental characteristics of the sea surface in the middle of Zhoushan fishery. The article addresses three main issues. The first one is the development of an ocean primary
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This study utilizes satellite data, including HY-1C/D, along with reanalysis data, to unveil the typical environmental characteristics of the sea surface in the middle of Zhoushan fishery. The article addresses three main issues. The first one is the development of an ocean primary productivity (OPP) inversion algorithm model. The second one is the study of chlorophyll-α (Chl-α) concentration and OPP distribution characteristics in Zhoushan fishery using China’s domestically produced ocean satellite HY-1C/D CZI data. The last one is the revelation of the characteristics of typical environmental factors on the sea surface at Zhoushan fishery by combining HY-1C/D with multi-source data. The results show the following: (1) The middle part of Zhoushan fishery exhibits significant seasonal and regional variations in Chl-α concentration and OPP. Chl-α concentration ranges mainly between 0.2 and 2.9 µg/L, with higher concentrations in spring and summer and lower Chl-α concentrations in autumn and winter. Spatially, Chl-α concentration gradually decreases from west to east. The OPP in the study area ranges from 100 mg·m−2d−1 to 1000 mg·m−2d−1, with high OPP values distributed on the western side, ranging from 400 mg·m−2d−1 to 1000 mg·m−2d−1, and gradually decreasing seaward. The highest OPP occurs in summer and the lowest in winter. (2) The correlation analysis between Chl-α concentration and OPP revealed a strong positive relationship. Consequently, this study developed an empirical model for estimating OPP based on Chl-α concentration and validated its feasibility. The model applies to areas with Chl-α concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 4 µg/L. (3) The convergence of freshwater injection, multiple ocean currents, and seasonal upwelling in the study area brings about a rich supply of nutrients. Additionally, the region is characterized by suitable conditions, including optimal Chl-α concentrations, OPP, SST, salinity, currents, and geological water depths. The synergistic effect of these factors together contributed to the formation of Zhoushan fishery.
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(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
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Open AccessArticle
Digital Flow in a Pool Induced by a Vertical Jet
by
Rita F. Carvalho, Pedro M. Lopes and Md Nazmul A. Beg
Water 2024, 16(10), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101386 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Turbulent water jets remain a critical study area, particularly the relation of the water flow with air entrainment and its role in energy dissipation at different hydraulic structures. Plunge pools, formed by the impact of jets on water cushions, play a pivotal role
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Turbulent water jets remain a critical study area, particularly the relation of the water flow with air entrainment and its role in energy dissipation at different hydraulic structures. Plunge pools, formed by the impact of jets on water cushions, play a pivotal role in energy dissipation. Understanding the complex flow dynamics within these pools is essential for designing efficient hydraulic structures. In this research, we present a comprehensive investigation of different numerical simulations, defining two-phase (air-water) in different ways, and them compare with experimental measurements. The primary objective is to analyze the pressure distribution at the bottom of a plunge pool induced by a vertical jet and understand the importance of accurately defining air-water flow in the dynamics of the jet into the pool. Our study bridges the gap between empirical data and computational modeling, shedding light on the intricate behavior of such flows with different method-based solvers: VOF, sub-grid, and multi-phase Euler. Various computational domains, mesh configurations, and analyses spanning different time periods, frequencies, and scales were considered.
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(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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Research on Energy Loss of Optimization of Inducer–Impeller Axial Fit Dimensions Based on Wave-Piercing Theory
by
Zhiqin Yang, Puyu Cao, Jinfeng Zhang, Shuyu Gao, Xinyan Song and Rui Zhu
Water 2024, 16(10), 1385; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101385 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
With the development of modern fluid machinery, the energy density of pumps is gradually being improved, and at the same time, higher demands are being placed on the cavitation performance, hence the introduction of the inducer and centrifugal impeller to form a dynamic–dynamic
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With the development of modern fluid machinery, the energy density of pumps is gradually being improved, and at the same time, higher demands are being placed on the cavitation performance, hence the introduction of the inducer and centrifugal impeller to form a dynamic–dynamic series structure. However, there are strict constraints on the axial size of pumps in fields such as firefighting and aerospace. The traditional empirical formula no longer satisfies the need to fit the axial dimensions between the induced wheel and the impeller at high velocities. Therefore, based on the wave-piercing theory, the drag reduction coefficient is introduced to explore the optimal axial fit size from the perspective of energy characteristics. This paper focuses on the influence of the inducer’s wake on the energy characteristics of downstream impellers, and conducts the following research: by adjusting the axial matching dimensions between the upstream inducer and the centrifugal impeller in the initial model, ten sets of axial distance models with matching dimensions of KD are designed, and the drag reduction coefficient is embedded to determine the optimal axial distance. The results show that the optimal axial distance is 0.2D, which is far lower than the axial distance value of 0.42D obtained from the traditional empirical formula for axial matching dimensions. Meanwhile, this paper uses tangential velocity, the inlet flow angle of the impeller, entropy production theory, and other indicators to analyze the internal energy loss of the high-speed vehicular fire pumps one by one. All of them confirm that the impeller in the high-speed vehicular fire pump has the lowest energy loss and optimal performance at an axial distance of 0.2D. Specifically, at this axial distance, the head can reach 259 m, and the hydraulic efficiency is as high as 83.62%. Thus, the feasibility of determining the axial placement of the impeller using the drag coefficient is validated. This research provides new insights into determining the axial coordination dimensions between the inducer and the impeller.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Optimization of Fluid Machinery)
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A Sand Boil Database for Piping Risk Management in the Po River, Italy
by
Laura Tonni, Michela Marchi, Agnese Bassi and Alessandro Rosso
Water 2024, 16(10), 1384; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101384 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Sand boil formation at the toe of river embankments is the typical manifestation of the initiation and progression of an internal erosion process known as backward erosion piping, which is recognized to be a major concern in many river systems worldwide. In Italy,
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Sand boil formation at the toe of river embankments is the typical manifestation of the initiation and progression of an internal erosion process known as backward erosion piping, which is recognized to be a major concern in many river systems worldwide. In Italy, more than 130 sand boils have been detected along the Po River, many of them experiencing recurrent reactivations during high-water events. In recent years, as part of the activities of the European project LIFE SandBoil, the Italian authority responsible for flood protection and flood damage reduction along the Po River has implemented a GIS-based web application to catalogue the sand boils observed in its operating area. The resulting database allows keeping records of a comprehensive and varied set of information, in terms of predisposing factors, initiation conditions and surface effects. Taking as a reference a well-documented cross-section of the Po River prone to piping, this paper describes the main features of this versatile and flexible tool, whose long-term aim is to support vulnerability studies and the development of risk maps against piping. The database, which might also accommodate data from different river basins, is thus meant to help in flood risk management, by suggesting priorities for the implementation of mitigation measures and allowing the monitoring of intervention effectiveness.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water Erosion and Sediment Transport)
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Excessive Eutrophication as a Chemical Barrier for Fish Fauna Dispersion: A Case Study in the Emblematic Tietê River (São Paulo, Brazil)
by
Bruna Urbanski and Marcos Nogueira
Water 2024, 16(10), 1383; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101383 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
The Tietê River receives most of the effluents and diffuse wastes from the São Paulo metropolis (21.9 million inhabitants). The study aimed to assess the extent to which environmental changes affected the fish fauna. We compared, in rainy and dry seasons, three sites
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The Tietê River receives most of the effluents and diffuse wastes from the São Paulo metropolis (21.9 million inhabitants). The study aimed to assess the extent to which environmental changes affected the fish fauna. We compared, in rainy and dry seasons, three sites in Tietê and three in tributaries with much better water quality conditions. No physical barriers exist between the sites. Fish were sampled with gillnets (exposed overnight) and the assemblage’s ecological attributes calculated. Water depth, transparency, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, total dissolved solids, pH, redox potential, total phosphorus, total nitrogen, and chlorophyll were simultaneously determined. Low oxygen concentrations (near zero in the rainy period), and the opposite for nutrients and total solids, separated the predominantly hypereutrophic Tietê from the tributaries (PCA). Differences in the fish assemblages were also evidenced (nMDS), including a higher richness per sample in tributaries (11 to 14 spp.) compared to Tietê (3 to 4 spp.). Siluriformes with accessory breathing dominated in Tietê and the highly tolerant detritivorous Prochilodus lineatus (the main commercial fish) was the only species found in all sites. The species correlated positively with oxygen in the tributaries and with turbidity, redox potential, and nutrients in Tietê (DistLM) (rainy season). Recovery measures are urgently required.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Ecosystems: Biodiversity and Conservation)
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