The factorial structure of executive functions in kindergarten children: an explorative study.

Executive functions (EF) are higher cognitive processes involved in the management of new, complex tasks with changing rules and/or the necessity to inhibit interferences. EF are central for academic success; they are necessary for planning, monitoring, and error detection. For adults, a three-factorial structure is often assumed, with the interrelated factors updating, shifting, and inhibition. Results regarding kindergarten EF are heterogeneous. Studies often do not include a direct comparison between different models. Some results support a unitary EF factor, while there is also evidence for two-factorial models. The present study aims to test four theory-driven models of EF structure in kindergarten age. Data from 175 children in their last year of kindergarten (mean age M  = 67.6 months, SD  = 6.71; range = 53-86 months) were analyzed with confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Working memory was measured with complex span tasks (Color Span Backwards, Corsi-Blocks Backwards), inhibition with a Go-/No-Go-task, a Flanker task, a Stroop-task and the HTKS task (Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task). Shifting was operationalized with modified Flanker and HTKS tasks including rule switching. A one-factor model fit best, both for the total sample and for a subsample of older, more age-homogenous children. After model respecification, a two-factor model (inhibition and shifting/updating) fit best. Results support a differentiated EF structure toward the end of kindergarten age, before the transition to school. If results are replicable, they have important implications for the development of EF test batteries and intervention programs for kindergarten children.